<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE root>
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/" article-type="other" dtd-version="1.2" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">Head and Neck Tumors</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Head and Neck Tumors</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Опухоли головы и шеи</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn publication-format="print">2222-1468</issn><issn publication-format="electronic">2411-4634</issn><publisher><publisher-name xml:lang="en">Publishing House ABV Press</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">615</article-id><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17650/2222-1468-2021-11-1-101-108</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>REVIEWS</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="toc-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОБЗОРНЫЕ СТАТЬИ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="article-type"><subject></subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title xml:lang="en">Causes of drug resistance and glioblastoma relapses</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Причины лекарственной устойчивости и рецидивов глиобластом</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4125-7342</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Mitrofanov</surname><given-names>A. A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Митрофанов</surname><given-names>А. А.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Alexey Andreevich Mitrofanov</p><p>23 Kashirskoe Hwy, Moscow 115478</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Алексей Андреевич Митрофанов</p><p>115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 23</p></bio><email>mitrofanov-aa@list.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4218-9652</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Naskhletashvili</surname><given-names>D. R.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Насхлеташвили</surname><given-names>Д. Р.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>23 Kashirskoe Hwy, Moscow 115478</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 23</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1850-5595</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Aleshin</surname><given-names>V. A.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Алешин</surname><given-names>В. А.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>23 Kashirskoe Hwy, Moscow 115478</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 23</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1766-0032</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Belov</surname><given-names>D. M.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Белов</surname><given-names>Д. М.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>23 Kashirskoe Hwy, Moscow 115478</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 23</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4160-9598</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Bekyashev</surname><given-names>A. Kh.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Бекяшев</surname><given-names>А. Х.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>23 Kashirskoe Hwy, Moscow 115478</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 23</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6325-716X</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Karakhan</surname><given-names>V. B.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Карахан</surname><given-names>В. Б.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>23 Kashirskoe Hwy, Moscow 115478</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 23</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5841-7480</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Sevyan</surname><given-names>N. V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Севян</surname><given-names>Н. В.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Bld. 2, 8 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>119991 Москва, ул. Трубецкая, 8, стр. 2</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8880-1758</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Prozorenko</surname><given-names>E. V.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Прозоренко</surname><given-names>Е. В.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Bld. 2, 8 Trubetskaya St., Moscow 119991</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>119991 Москва, ул. Трубецкая, 8, стр. 2</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6792-967X</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name xml:lang="en"><surname>Roshchina</surname><given-names>K. E.</given-names></name><name xml:lang="ru"><surname>Рощина</surname><given-names>К. Е.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><address><country country="RU">Russian Federation</country></address><bio xml:lang="en"><p>23 Kashirskoe Hwy, Moscow 115478</p></bio><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>115478 Москва, Каширское шоссе, 23</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff1"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">N.N. Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology of the Ministry of Health of Russia</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">ФГБУ Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр онкологии им. Н.Н. Блохина Минздрава России</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff2"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of Russia</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">ФГАОУВО Первый Московский государственный медицинский университет им. И.М. Сеченова Минздрава России</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff3"><aff><institution xml:lang="en">N.N. Blokhin National Medical Research Center of Oncology of the Ministry of Health of Russia</institution></aff><aff><institution xml:lang="ru">ФГБУ Национальный медицинский исследовательский центр онкологии им. Н.Н. Блохина</institution></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date date-type="pub" iso-8601-date="2021-04-24" publication-format="electronic"><day>24</day><month>04</month><year>2021</year></pub-date><volume>11</volume><issue>1</issue><issue-title xml:lang="en"/><issue-title xml:lang="ru"/><fpage>101</fpage><lpage>108</lpage><history><date date-type="received" iso-8601-date="2021-04-24"><day>24</day><month>04</month><year>2021</year></date><date date-type="accepted" iso-8601-date="2021-04-24"><day>24</day><month>04</month><year>2021</year></date></history><permissions><copyright-statement xml:lang="en">Copyright ©; 2021, Mitrofanov A.A., Naskhletashvili D.R., Aleshin V.A., Belov D.M., Bekyashev A.K., Karakhan V.B., Sevyan N.V., Prozorenko E.V., Roshchina K.E.</copyright-statement><copyright-statement xml:lang="ru">Copyright ©; 2021, Митрофанов А.А., Насхлеташвили Д.Р., Алешин В.А., Белов Д.М., Бекяшев А.Х., Карахан В.Б., Севян Н.В., Прозоренко Е.В., Рощина К.Е.</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2021</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Mitrofanov A.A., Naskhletashvili D.R., Aleshin V.A., Belov D.M., Bekyashev A.K., Karakhan V.B., Sevyan N.V., Prozorenko E.V., Roshchina K.E.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Митрофанов А.А., Насхлеташвили Д.Р., Алешин В.А., Белов Д.М., Бекяшев А.Х., Карахан В.Б., Севян Н.В., Прозоренко Е.В., Рощина К.Е.</copyright-holder><ali:free_to_read xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/"/><license><ali:license_ref xmlns:ali="http://www.niso.org/schemas/ali/1.0/">https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0</ali:license_ref></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://ogsh.abvpress.ru/jour/article/view/615">https://ogsh.abvpress.ru/jour/article/view/615</self-uri><abstract xml:lang="en"><p>Glioblastoma multiform^ is one of the most aggressive malignancies, wich standard of treatment not changed over the past decade, and the average life expectancy from diagnosis to death does not exceed two years in the most optimistic trials. The review examines the features of the glioblastoma microenvironment, its genetic heterogeneity, the development of recurrent glioblastoma, the formation of drug resistance, the influence of the blood-brain barrier and the brain lymphatic system on the development of immunotherapy and targeted therapy. Molecular subgroups of glioblastomas with an assumed prognostic value were analyzed. It was determined that numerous relationships between glioblastoma cells and the microenvironment are aimed at ensuring tumor progression, and also cause a state of reduced effector function of T cells. Data on the development of future molecular-targeted therapies for four types of cancer cells based on their different properties and response to therapy are summarized: primary GSC, RISC cells, and proliferating and postmitotic non-GSC fractions. The penetration of blood-brain barrier with chemotherapeutic drugs and antibodies currently remains the main limitation in the treatment of glioblastoma. The resulting analysis of the causes is reduced to the following conclusions. A detailed understanding of the evolutionary dynamics of tumor progression can provide insight into the related molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying glioblastoma recurrence. The most promising methods of treatment for glioblastoma are combined therapy using immune checkpoint inhibitors in combination with new treatment methods -vaccine therapy, CAR-T-cell therapy and viral therapy. A deeper study of the mechanisms of drug resistance and acquisition resistance, biology and subcloning clonal populations of glioblastoma and its microenvironment, with active consideration of combined trips to the treatment will increase the survival rate of patients, and may lead to stable remission of the disease.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Мультиформные глиобластомы остаются одними из наиболее агрессивных злокачественных новообразований, стандарты лечения которых существенно не менялись за последнее десятилетие, а средняя продолжительность жизни пациентов с момента постановки диагноза до смерти не превышает 2 лет в самых оптимистичных исследованиях. В обзоре рассматриваются вопросы особенностей микроокружения глиобластомы, ее генетической гетерогенности, развития рецидивирующей глиобластомы, формирования лекарственной устойчивости, влияния гематоэнцефалического барьера и лимфатической системы центральной нервной системы на развитие иммунотерапии и таргетной терапии. Проанализированы молекулярные подгруппы глиобластом с предполагаемым прогностическим значением. Определено, что многочисленные взаимосвязи клеток глиобластомы и микроокружения направлены на обеспечение прогрессии опухоли, а также вызывают состояние пониженной эффекторной функции Т-клеток. Обобщены данные о разработке будущей молекулярно-направленной терапии для 4 типов раковых клеток на основе их различных свойств и реакции на терапию: первичных GSC, RISC, а также пролиферирующих и постмитотических фракций не-GSC. Проникновение через гематоэнцефалический барьер химиотерапевтических препаратов и антител в настоящее время остается основным ограничением при лечении глиобластом. Результирующий анализ причин сводится к следующим выводам: детальное понимание эволюционной динамики прогрессирования опухоли сможет дать представление о связанных молекулярно-генетических механизмах, лежащих в основе рецидива глиобластомы; наиболее перспективной для лечения глиобластомы представляется комбинированная терапия с использованием ингибиторов контрольных точек иммунитета в сочетании с новыми методами - вакцинотерапией, CAR-Т-клеточной и вирусной терапией; более глубокое изучение механизмов лекарственной устойчивости, обретения резистентности, биологии клональных и субклональных популяций глиобластомы и ее микроокружения при активном изучении комбинированных подходов к лечению опухоли позволит увеличить выживаемость пациентов, и, возможно, привести к стойкой ремиссии заболевания.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>glioblastoma relapse</kwd><kwd>immunotherapy</kwd><kwd>targeted therapy</kwd><kwd>drug resistance</kwd><kwd>review of genetic heterogeneity</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>рецидив глиобластомы</kwd><kwd>иммунотерапия</kwd><kwd>таргетная терапия</kwd><kwd>лекарственная устойчивость</kwd><kwd>обзор генетической гетерогенности</kwd></kwd-group><funding-group/></article-meta></front><body></body><back><ref-list><ref id="B1"><label>1.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">YakovenkoYu.G. Glioblastoma: current state of the problem. Meditsinsky vestnik Yuga Rossii = Medical Bulletin of the South of Russia 2019;10(4):28—35. DOI: 10.21886/2219-8075-2019-10-4-28-35. (In Russ.).</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Яковленко Ю.Г. Глиобластомы: современное состояние проблемы. Медицинский вестник Юга России 2019;10(4):28—35.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B2"><label>2.</label><mixed-citation>Shergalis A., Bankhead A. 3rd, Luesakul U. et al. Current Challenges and Opportunities in Treating Glioblastomas. Pharmacol Rev 2018;70(3):412—45. DOI: 10.1124/pr.117.014944.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B3"><label>3.</label><mixed-citation>Ostrom Q.T., Gittleman H., Xu J. et al. CBTRUS Statistical report: primary brain and other central nervous system tumors diagnosed in the United States in 2009-2013. Neurooncol 2016;18(5): v1-75. DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/now207.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B4"><label>4.</label><mixed-citation>Stupp R., Mason W.P., van den Bent M.J. et al. Radiotherapy plus concomitant and adjuvant temozolomide for glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 2005;352(10):987—96. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa043330.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B5"><label>5.</label><mixed-citation>Chinot O.L., Wick W., Mason W. et al. Bevacizumab plus radiotherapy-temo-zolomide for newly diagnosed glioblastoma. N Engl J Med 2014;370(8):709-22. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMoa1308345.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B6"><label>6.</label><mixed-citation>Tosoni A., Franceschi E., Poggi R., Brandes A.A. Relapsed glioblastoma: treatment strategies for initial and subsequent recurrences. Curr Treat Options Oncol 2016;17(9):49. DOI: 10.1007/s11864-016-0422-4.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B7"><label>7.</label><mixed-citation>Gorlia T., Stupp R., Brandes A.A. et al. New prognostic factors and calculators for outcome prediction in patients with recurrent glioblastoma: a pooled analysis of EORTC Brain Tumour Group Phase I and II clinical trials. Eur J Cancer 2012;48(8):1176-84. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2012.02.004.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B8"><label>8.</label><mixed-citation>Stupp R., Taillibert S., Kanner A. et al. Effect of tumor-treating fields plus maintenance temozolomide vi maintenance temozolomide alone on survival in patients with glioblastoma: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2017;318(23):2306-16. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2017.18718.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B9"><label>9.</label><mixed-citation>McLendon R., Friedman A., Bigner D. et al. Comprehensive genomic characterization defines human glioblastoma genes and core pathways. Nature 2008;455(7216):1061-8. DOI: 10.1038/nature07385.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B10"><label>10.</label><mixed-citation>Verhaak R.G.W., Hoadley K.A., Purdom E. et al. Integrated genomic analysis identifies clinically relevant subtypes of glioblastoma characterized by abnormalities in PDGFRA, IDH1, EGFR, and NF1. Cancer Cell 2010;17(1):98-110. DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2009.12.020.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B11"><label>11.</label><mixed-citation>Patel A.P., Tirosh I., Trombetta J.J. et al. Single-cell RNA-seq highlights intratumoral heterogeneity in primary glioblastoma. Science 2014;344(6190):1396—1401. DOI: 10.1126/science.1254257.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B12"><label>12.</label><mixed-citation>Korshunov A., Golanov A., Sycheva R. Immunohistochemical markers for prognosis of cerebral glioblastomas. J Neurooncol 2002;58(3):217—36. DOI: 10.1023/a:1016218117251.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B13"><label>13.</label><mixed-citation>Scorsetti M., Navarria P., Pessina F., Ascolese A.M. Multimodality therapy approaches, local and systemic treatment, compared with chemotherapy alone in recurrent glioblastoma. BMC Cancer 2015;15:486. DOI: 10.1186/s12885-015-1488-2.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B14"><label>14.</label><mixed-citation>Wei W., Shin Y.S., Xue M. et al. Single-cell phosphoproteomics resolves adaptive signaling dynamics and informs targeted combination therapy in glioblastoma. Cancer Cell 2016;29(4):563—73. DOI: 10.1016/j.ccell.2016.03.012.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B15"><label>15.</label><mixed-citation>Qazi M.A., Vora P., Venugopal C. et al. Intratumoral heterogeneity: pathways to treatment resistance and relapse in human glioblastoma. Ann Oncol 2017;28(7):1448—56. DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdx169.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B16"><label>16.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Stavrovskaya A.A., Rusanov S.S., Rybalkina E.Yu. Problems of glioblastoma resistance to drug therapy. Review. Biokhimiya = Biochemistry 2016;81(2):179—90. (In Russ.).</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ставровская А.А., Шушанов С.С., Ры-балкина Е.Ю. Проблемы устойчивости глиобластом к лекарственной терапии. Обзор. Биохимия 2016;81(2):179—90.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B17"><label>17.</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Voronina E.I., Ageeva T.A., Ryzhova M.V. Features of the microenvironment and possibilities of immunotherapy of malignant glial tumors. Klinicheskaya i eksperimentalnaya morfologiya = Clinical and Experimental Morphology 2020;9(2):5—10. DOI: 10.31088/CEM2020.9.2.5-10. (In Russ.).</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Воронина Е.И., Агеева ТА., Рыжова М.В. Особенности микроокружения и возможности иммунотерапии злокачественных глиальных опухолей. Клиническая и экспериментальная морфология 2020;9(2):5—10. DOI: 10.31088/CEM2020.9.2.5-10.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="B18"><label>18.</label><mixed-citation>Broekman M.L., Maas S.L.N., Abels E.R. et al. Multidimensional communication in the microenvirons of glioblastoma. Nat Rev Neurol 2018;14(8):482—95. DOI: 10.1038/s41582-018-0025-8.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B19"><label>19.</label><mixed-citation>Jhaveri N., Chen T.C., Hofman F.M. Tumor vasculature and glioma stem cells: contributions to glioma progression. Cancer Lett 2016;380(2):545—51. DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2014.12.028.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B20"><label>20.</label><mixed-citation>See A.P., Parker J.J., Waziri A. The role of regulatory T cells and microglia in glioblastoma associated immunosuppression. J Neurooncol 2015;123(3):405—12. DOI: 10.1007/s11060-015-1849-3.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B21"><label>21.</label><mixed-citation>Roesch S., Rapp C., Dettling S., Herold-Mende C. When immune cells turn bad-tumor-associated microglia/macrophages in glioma. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19(2):E436. DOI: 10.3390/ijms19020436.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B22"><label>22.</label><mixed-citation>Okolie O., Bago J.R., Schmid R.S. et al. Reactive astrocytes potentiate tumor aggressiveness in a murine glioma resection and recurrence model. Neuro Oncol 2016;18(12):1622—33. DOI: 10.1093/neuonc/now117.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B23"><label>23.</label><mixed-citation>Pencheva N., de Gooijer M.C., Vis D.J. et al. Identification of a druggable pathway controlling glioblastoma invasiveness. Cell Rep 2017;20(1):48—60. DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2017.06.036.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B24"><label>24.</label><mixed-citation>Seano G. Targeting the perivascular niche in brain tumors. Curr Opin Oncol 2018;30(1):54—60. DOI: 10.1097/CCO.0000000000000417.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B25"><label>25.</label><mixed-citation>De Vleeschouwer S., Bergers G. Glioblastoma to target the tumor cell or the microenvironment? In: De Vleeschouwer S., editor. Glioblastoma. Codon Publications, Brisbane, Australia, 2017. Chapter 16. Pp. 315-40. DOI: 10.15586/codon.glioblastoma.2017.ch16.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B26"><label>26.</label><mixed-citation>Da Ros M., De Gregorio V., Iorio A.L. et al. Glioblastoma chemoresistance: the double play by microenvironment and blood-brain barrier. Int J Mol Sci 2018;19(10):2879. DOI: 10.3390/ijms19102879.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B27"><label>27.</label><mixed-citation>Lathia J.D., Mack S.C., Mulkearns-Hubert E.E. et al. Cancer stem cells in glioblastoma. Genes Dev 2015;29(12):1203-17. DOI: 10.1101/gad.261982.115.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B28"><label>28.</label><mixed-citation>Hadjipanayis C.G., Van Meir E.G. Tumor initiating cells in malignant gliomas: biology and implications for therapy. J Mol Med(Berl) 2009;87(4):363-74. DOI: 10.1007/s00109-009-0440-9.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B29"><label>29.</label><mixed-citation>Osuka S., Van Meir E.G. Overcoming therapeutic resistance in glioblastoma: the way forward. J Clin Invest 2017;127(2):415-26. DOI: 10.1172/JCI89587.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B30"><label>30.</label><mixed-citation>Sabit H., Nakada M., Furuta T. et al. Characterizing invading glioma cells based on IDH1-R132H and Ki-67 immunofluorescence. Brain Tumor Pathol 2014;31(4):242-46. DOI: 10.1007/s10014-013-0172-y</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B31"><label>31.</label><mixed-citation>Scherer H.J. Structural development in gliomas. Am J Cancer 1938;34(3):333—51.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B32"><label>32.</label><mixed-citation>Munthe S., Petterson S.A., Dahlrot R.H. et al. Glioma Cells in the Tumor Periphery Have a Stem Cell Phenotype. PLoS One 2016;11(5). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155106.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B33"><label>33.</label><mixed-citation>Ziegler D.S., Kung A.L., Kieran M.W. Anti-apoptosis mechanisms in malignant gliomas. J Clin Oncol 2008;26(3):493—500. DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2007.13.9717.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B34"><label>34.</label><mixed-citation>Ceccarelli M., Barthel F.P., Malta T.M. et al. Molecular profiling reveals biologically discrete subsets and pathways of progression in diffuse glioma. Cell 2016;164(3):550—63. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.12.028.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B35"><label>35.</label><mixed-citation>Suva M.L., Rheinbay E., Gillespie S.M. et al. Reconstructing and reprogramming the tumor-propagating potential of glioblastoma stem-like cells. Cell 2014;157(3):580—94. DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.02.030.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B36"><label>36.</label><mixed-citation>Mao P., Joshi K., Li J. et al. Mesenchymal glioma stem cells are maintained by activated glycolytic metabolism involving aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A3. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013;110(21):8644—49. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1221478110.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B37"><label>37.</label><mixed-citation>Kathagen A., Schulte A., Balcke G. et al. Hypoxia and oxygenation induce a metabolic switch between pentose phosphate pathway and glycolysis in glioma stem-like cells. Acta Neuropathol 2013;126(5):763—80. DOI: 10.1007/s00401-013-1173-y.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B38"><label>38.</label><mixed-citation>Vlashi E., Lagadec C., Vergnes L. et al. Metabolic state of glioma stem cells and nontumorigenic cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011;108(38):16062—7. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1106704108.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B39"><label>39.</label><mixed-citation>Kim H., Siyuan Zheng S., Amini S.S. et al. Whole-genome and multisector exome sequencing of primary and posttreatment glioblastoma reveals patterns of tumor evolution. Genome Res 2015; 25(3):316—27. DOI: 10.1101/gr.180612.114.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B40"><label>40.</label><mixed-citation>Wang J., Cazzato E., Ladewig E. et al. Clonal evolution of glioblastoma under therapy. Nat Genet 2016;48(7):768—76. DOI: 10.1038/ng.3590.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B41"><label>41.</label><mixed-citation>Bouffet E., Larouche V., Campbell B.B. et al. Immune checkpoint inhibition for hypermutant glioblastoma multiforme resulting from germline biallelic mismatch repair deficiency. J Clin Oncol 2016;34(19):2206—11. DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2016.66.6552.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B42"><label>42.</label><mixed-citation>Chiocca E.A., Blair D., Mufson R.A. Oncolytic viruses targeting tumor stem cells. Cancer Res 2014;74(13):3396—8. DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-14-0290.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B43"><label>43.</label><mixed-citation>Post D.E., Devi N.S., Li Z. et al. Cancer therapy with a replicating oncolytic adenovirus targeting the hypoxic microenvironment of tumors. Clin Cancer Res 2004;10(24):8603—12. DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-04-1432.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B44"><label>44.</label><mixed-citation>Post D.E., Sandberg E.M., Kyle M.M. et al. Targeted cancer gene therapy using a hypoxia inducible factor dependent oncolytic adenovirus armed with interleukin-4. Cancer Res 2007;67(14):6872—81. DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-06-3244.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B45"><label>45.</label><mixed-citation>Hitchcock S.A. Blood-brain barrier permeability considerations for CNS-targeted compound library design. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2008;12(3):318—23. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2008.03.019.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B46"><label>46.</label><mixed-citation>Pardridge W.M. Blood-brain barrier delivery. Drug Discov Today 2007;12(1—2):54—61. DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2006.10.013.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B47"><label>47.</label><mixed-citation>Weiss N., Miller F., Cazaubon S., Cou-raud P.O. The blood-brain barrier in brain homeostasis and neurological diseases. Biochim Biophys Acta 2009;1788(4):842—57. DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2008.10.022.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B48"><label>48.</label><mixed-citation>Chen L., Li X., Liu L. et al. Erastin sensitizes glioblastoma cells to temozolomide by restraining xCT and cystathionine-y-lyase function. Oncol Rep 2015;33(3):1465—74. DOI: 10.3892/ОГ.2015.3712.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B49"><label>49.</label><mixed-citation>Watkins S., Robel S., Kimbrough I.F. et al. Disruption of astrocyte-vascular coupling and the blood-brain barrier by invading glioma cells. Nat Commun 2014;5:4196. DOI: 10.1038/ncomms5196.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B50"><label>50.</label><mixed-citation>Wen L., Tan Y., Dai S. et al. VEGF-mediated tight junctions pathological fenestration enhances doxorubicin-loaded glycolipid-like nanoparticles traversing BBB for glioblastoma-targeting therapy. Drug Deliv 2017;24(1):1843—55. DOI: 10.1080/10717544.2017.1386731.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B51"><label>51.</label><mixed-citation>Shannon R.J., Carpenter K.L., Guil-foyle M.R. et al. Cerebral microdialysis in clinical studies of drugs: Pharmacokinetic applications. J Pharmacokinet Pharmacodyn 2013;40(3):343—58. DOI: 10.1007/s10928-013-9306-4.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B52"><label>52.</label><mixed-citation>Liu S.J., Yang T.C., Yang S.T. et al. Biodegradable hybrid-structured nanofibrous membrane supported chemoprotective gene therapy enhances chemotherapy tolerance and efficacy in malignant glioma rats. Artif Cells Nanomed Biotechnol 2018;46(sup2):515—26. DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2018.1460374.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B53"><label>53.</label><mixed-citation>Pompe R.S., von Bueren A.O., Mynarek M. et al. Intraventricular methotrexate as part of primary therapy for children with infant and/or metastatic medulloblastoma: Feasibility, acute toxicity and evidence for efficacy. Eur J Cancer 2015;51(17):2634—42. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2015.08.009.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B54"><label>54.</label><mixed-citation>Thomas E., Colombeau L., Gries M. et al. Ultrasmall AGuIX theranostic nanoparticles for vascular-targeted interstitial photodynamic therapy of glioblastoma. Int J Nanomedicine 2017;12:7075-88. DOI: 10.2147/IJN.S141559.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B55"><label>55.</label><mixed-citation>Nafee N., Gouda N. Nucleic Acids-based Nanotherapeutics crossing the blood brain barrier. Curr. Gene Ther 2017;17(2):154—69. DOI: 10.2174/1566523217666170510155803.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B56"><label>56.</label><mixed-citation>Miller J.J., Wen P.Y. Emerging targeted therapies for glioma. Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 2016;21(4):441—52. DOI: 10.1080/14728214.2016.1257609.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B57"><label>57.</label><mixed-citation>Sampson J.H., Heimberger A.B., Archer G.E. et al. Immunologic escape after prolonged progression-free survival with epidermal growth factor receptor variant III peptide vaccination in patients with newly diagnosed glioblastoma. J Clin Oncol 2010;28(31):4722—29. DOI: 10.1200/JCO.2010.28.6963.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B58"><label>58.</label><mixed-citation>Medawar P.B. Immunity to homologous grafted skin; the fate of skin homografts transplanted to the brain, to subcutaneous tissue, and to the anterior chamber of the eye. Br J Exp Pathol 1948;29(1):58—69.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B59"><label>59.</label><mixed-citation>Louveau A., Smirnov I., Keyes T.J. et al. Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels. Nature 2015;523(7560):337-41. DOI: 10.1038/nature14432.</mixed-citation></ref><ref id="B60"><label>60.</label><mixed-citation>Greter M., Heppner F.L., Lemos M.P. et al. Dendritic cells permit immune invasion of the CNS in an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Nat Med 2005; 11(3):328—34. DOI: 10.1038/nm1197.</mixed-citation></ref></ref-list></back></article>
